The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. The consequence of consumption of such poor quality water is the spread of related diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers.
Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water.
(2013) Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna. Groundwater quality is generally good. The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. We arbitrarily assigned the average adult female weight, with the exception of elephant as predominantly juveniles are preyed upon in dry periods [19], for each sample to allow a crude comparison with kill data.
18, ST/TCD/5. Windhoek, Affordable Chobe & Okavango Delta Safari Review, Registered Members of these Organizations, 2nd floor, Tygervalley We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. Very high fluoride concentrations are seen in the southwest of the basin, causing dental fluorosis (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. Groundwater in the upper Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is typically of Na-Cl type and brackish. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. A male Lion will develop a mane by year 3, this will vary in color from blond to black. Tsavo Parks and Chyulu Hills Complex - Unesco. 1). Bold dashed lines indicate means. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO.
Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988).
Vassolo S. 2012. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(9), 354. While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals.
It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites.
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We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). View our Cookie Policy. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7.
Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts.
From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability.
Mzima springs. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape The water is usually of magnesium-carbonate type (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). For males, buffalo was followed by the class medium Bovidae (11%) - class dominated by sable and wildebeest for kill data -, elephant (9%) and zebra (8%), together accounting for 84% of the prey detected (Table 1). These basins generally form low to moderately productive aquifers, capable of borehole yields of up to 5 m/hour. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Most groundwater in Cameroon is thought to be of good natural inorganic quality. Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. 2). The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Lake Chad Contrary to our predictions, areas close to waterholes were highly selected for kills regardless of seasonal conditions. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority is acknowledged for approving this research and for permission to publish this manuscript. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. It is located in rural area.
In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. In Hwange, the vegetation is primarily woodland and bushland and open grassland areas are scarce but often associated with waterhole areas [49]. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Freya Van Kesteren, Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. 23 Views.
In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water.
The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations.
Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. 1. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details).
_____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Cameroon: Water source sustains community, 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. and common mice (Mus spp.). Then-Gov.
This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. 1). African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species.
The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. The combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 m (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Hence male and female data were analysed separately. German Development Institute. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Current address: Marwell Wildlife, Colden Common, Winchester, United Kingdom, Affiliations: This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig.
For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50].
The plateau areas show distinct wet and dry seasons, with lower rainfall than the coastal region. The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy / Ministere De Leau Et De Lenergie (MINEE) has responsibility for water supply and sanitation in both rural areas and towns through the Directorate of Directorate of Water (DE: Direction de lEau). April 20, 2022
Zeke Davidson, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. It provides fresh water for an entire community.
This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. Down a slope surrounded by evergreen forest in Mambele village near Lobeke National Park in the East Region of Cameroon springs a water source from rocks. Many springs occur. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al.
For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years.
The best yields are found where fractured rocks are overlain with a thick weathered zone or thick alluvium. We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users.
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. Swakopmund, Pretoria Water sources the lions merely exploit the movement of these tool-use repertoires still. The Democratic Republic . 2006. Marion Valeix, Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing.
In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al.
Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. Sossusvlei
It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. e55182.
Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary.
Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. The Logone flows northward into the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries.
This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. Igiene e sanita pubblica, 71(1), 21-37. Sightings of lion in the hluhluwe umfolozi vary according to various factors. Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.)
It is located in banakata. Seasonal prey availability estimates for Hwange used in this analysis were taken from published road transect data for Sinamatella, Main Camp and Ngamo areas, which cover our study area [36]. In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Tsavo. In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. We're sorry. Please note that the areas of the layout diagrams are different for the engines types, see Fig. Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Analyzed the data: ZD MV. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]).
Because several non-independent samples were collected at one site, we used one faecal sample only per kill site to avoid any pseuso-replication [27].
Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). Surface water. Borehole yields are usually 1 to 3 m/hour, in the region of the Mandara mountains, but can rarely reach 30 m/hour in places in the Kribi region, associated with large faults (UN 1988). This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner.
doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.004, Return to the index pages:
For more information see the climate resource page. It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006).
More information on the derivation and interpretation of these statistics can be seen on the FAO Aquastat website. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Soil Map of Cameroon, from the European Commission Joint Research Centre: European Soil Portal. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. British Geological Survey. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers.
Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, this country is surrounded by six other African countries, as well as three bodies of water. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Water Practice and Technology.
Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A.
Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004).
2).
Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country >> Hydrogeology of Cameroon.
Timber logging provides significant government income, but is relatively poorly regulated. These, and others, may also be available through the Africa Groundwater Literature Archive, Ako Ako A, Eyong GET and Nkeng GE. Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. GWP (Global Water Partnership). What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Since the 1980s, the government has followed policies of structural adjustment and privatisation lauded by international donors and development partners. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. It is located in banakata.